Class 12 Chemistry Part I

Types of solutions across gaseous, liquid and solid states, concentration units including mole fraction, molarity, molality and mass percentage, Raoult's law for volatile and non-volatile solutes, Henry's law for gas solubility, ideal and non-ideal solution behaviour, colligative properties including vapour pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression and osmotic pressure, and abnormal molar masses due to association and dissociation

Electrochemical cells and the distinction between galvanic and electrolytic cells, electrode potentials and the Nernst equation, the relationship between cell potential, Gibbs energy and equilibrium constants, conductance of electrolytic solutions including resistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity, Kohlrausch's law and its applications, quantitative aspects of electrolysis via Faraday's laws, primary and secondary batteries and fuel cells, and corrosion as an electrochemical process

Introduction to reaction rates and the scope of chemical kinetics, average and instantaneous rates of reaction, rate expression in terms of reactant and product concentrations, factors affecting reaction rates including concentration, temperature, pressure and catalysts, rate law and rate constant, order and molecularity of reactions, integrated rate equations for zero and first order reactions, pseudo first order reactions, temperature dependence via the Arrhenius equation, the effect of catalysts on reaction rates and activation energy, and collision theory of chemical reactions including collision frequency, effective collisions, steric factor, and limitations

Introduction to d-block and f-block elements, their position in the periodic table, electronic configurations, the four transition series and two inner transition series, IUPAC definition of transition metals, general characteristics of first-row transition metals, physical properties and metallic bonding, variation in atomic and ionic sizes across transition series, lanthanoid contraction and its consequences, density trends, comprehensive properties table for the first transition series, ionisation enthalpies and exchange energy, irregular trends at half-filled and fully filled d configurations, connection between ionisation data and oxidation state stability, oxidation states of transition elements with Table 4.3, variable oxidation states from incompletely filled d orbitals, maximum oxidation state pattern and the d-block versus p-block trend reversal, low and zero oxidation states with pi-acceptor ligands, standard electrode potentials for M²⁺/M and M³⁺/M²⁺ half-cells with thermochemical analysis, copper's unique positive E⊖, irregularities at Mn Ni and Zn, stability of higher oxidation states in halides and oxides, fluorine and oxygen as stabilising partners, copper halide chemistry and Cu⁺ disproportionation, oxocations, multiple bonding in oxides, chemical reactivity of transition metals with mineral acids, E⊖ values predicting oxidising and reducing power of transition metal ions, Mn³⁺ and Co³⁺ as strongest oxidising agents, Ti²⁺ V²⁺ Cr²⁺ as strong reducing agents, trends in physical and chemical properties, catalytic properties of transition metals through variable oxidation states and surface bonding, interstitial compounds formed by trapping H C and N in metal lattices, alloy formation from similar metallic radii with key examples like stainless steel brass and bronze, disproportionation of oxidation states, preparation and properties of important compounds including potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate, lanthanoids and actinoids with their electronic configurations, oxidation states, and chemical behaviour, general characteristics of actinoids including physical appearance structural variability reactivity with water acids and non-metals, comparison of magnetic properties and ionisation enthalpies between actinoids and lanthanoids, 5f versus 4f electron shielding and bonding participation, lanthanoid contraction as more consequential than actinoid contraction, and industrial applications of d- and f-block elements including iron and steel, V2O5 TiCl4 Fe Ni PdCl2 catalysts, battery metals, coinage metals, and AgBr in photography

Werner's theory of coordination compounds, key terminology such as coordination entity, central atom, ligand, coordination number and coordination sphere, nomenclature rules, types of isomerism, bonding theories including valence bond and crystal field theory, colour in coordination compounds through d-d transitions, limitations of CFT, synergic bonding in metal carbonyls, and the importance and applications of coordination compounds in analytical chemistry, metallurgy, biology, catalysis, electroplating, photography, and medicine