Class 12 Chemistry Part II

Classification, nomenclature, preparation methods, physical and chemical properties, stereochemistry, reactions and mechanisms of haloalkanes and haloarenes, including nucleophilic substitution, elimination reactions, and polyhalogen compounds

Classification, nomenclature, preparation methods, physical and chemical properties, and important reactions of alcohols, phenols and ethers, covering mono/di/trihydric compounds, primary/secondary/tertiary alcohols, and symmetrical/unsymmetrical ethers

Introduction to carbonyl compounds, the carbonyl group and its role in aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and related derivatives, common and IUPAC nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones including Greek letter position labelling and phenone naming, systematic IUPAC naming rules, the carbaldehyde suffix for ring-attached aldehydes, the oxo prefix, sp2 hybridisation of the carbonyl carbon, trigonal planar geometry, polarity and resonance of the C=O group, preparation methods for aldehydes and ketones including oxidation, dehydrogenation, ozonolysis, Rosenmund reduction, Stephen reaction, DIBAL-H, Etard reaction, and Gatterman-Koch reaction, ketone-specific preparation routes via dialkylcadmium, Grignard reagent with nitriles, and Friedel-Crafts acylation, physical properties covering boiling points, solubility, hydrogen bonding, and odour trends, nucleophilic addition mechanism and reactivity of aldehydes vs ketones, key nucleophilic addition reactions including HCN (cyanohydrins), sodium bisulphite, Grignard reagents, alcohols (hemiacetals, acetals, ketals), and ammonia derivatives (imines, oximes, hydrazones, semicarbazones), reduction of carbonyl compounds to alcohols (NaBH4, LiAlH4, catalytic hydrogenation) and to hydrocarbons (Clemmensen and Wolff-Kishner reductions), oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids, Tollens' silver mirror test, Fehling's test, vigorous oxidation of ketones with C-C bond cleavage, the haloform reaction for detecting the methyl carbonyl group including the iodoform test, alpha-hydrogen acidity and enolate ion formation, aldol reaction and condensation of aldehydes and ketones, cross aldol condensation with selective product formation, the Cannizzaro disproportionation reaction for aldehydes without alpha-hydrogens, electrophilic substitution on aromatic carbonyl compounds with the carbonyl group as a meta-directing deactivator, reactivity ranking of carbonyl compounds in nucleophilic addition, industrial and everyday uses of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde, acetone, and other carbonyl compounds, introduction to carboxylic acids covering aliphatic and aromatic types, fatty acids from natural fats, common names derived from Latin and Greek origins, IUPAC naming rules for mono-, di- and tricarboxylic acids with Table 8.3, sp2 hybridised carboxyl group geometry, and resonance stabilisation explaining why the carboxyl carbon is less electrophilic than a simple carbonyl carbon, six major methods of preparing carboxylic acids including oxidation of primary alcohols and aldehydes, oxidation of alkylbenzenes, hydrolysis of nitriles and amides, Grignard carboxylation with dry ice, hydrolysis of acyl halides and anhydrides, and hydrolysis of esters, ascending the homologous series via nitrile and Grignard routes, multi-step transformation worked examples, physical properties of carboxylic acids including boiling points, hydrogen-bonded dimers in vapour phase and aprotic solvents, water solubility trends with chain length, and organic solvent solubility, acidity of carboxylic acids covering reactions with metals, alkalis and carbonates, dissociation in water, Ka and pKa scales, resonance stabilisation of the carboxylate ion, comparison of carboxylic acid acidity with phenols and alcohols, and the effect of electron-withdrawing and electron-donating substituents on acid strength including the sp2 carbon effect and aromatic substituent effects, reactions involving cleavage of the C-OH bond of carboxylic acids including anhydride formation, Fischer esterification with the nucleophilic acyl substitution mechanism, conversion to acyl chlorides using PCl5 PCl3 and SOCl2, and amide formation via ammonium salt intermediates including phthalic acid cyclisation to phthalimide, reduction of carboxylic acids to primary alcohols using LiAlH4 and diborane with NaBH4 limitation, decarboxylation via sodalime and Kolbe electrolysis, alpha-halogenation through the Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction, electrophilic substitution on aromatic carboxylic acids with meta-directing and deactivating behaviour, Friedel-Crafts limitation, substituent effects on acid strength comparisons, and industrial and everyday uses of key carboxylic acids

Structure, classification, nomenclature, preparation methods, physical and chemical properties of amines, basicity, reactions with nitrous acid, diazonium salts and their synthetic applications including azo dyes

Introduction to biomolecules, classification and properties of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, reducing and non-reducing sugars, monosaccharide sub-classification, structure of glucose, D/L configuration, cyclic hemiacetal structure, anomers, pyranose ring, Haworth projections, structure of fructose including open-chain ketohexose form, furanose ring, and fructofuranose anomers, disaccharides covering glycosidic linkage formation, reducing vs non-reducing behaviour, and the structures and properties of sucrose, maltose, and lactose including invert sugar, polysaccharides covering starch (amylose and amylopectin), cellulose, and glycogen with their linkage types, branching patterns, and biological roles, the importance of carbohydrates as food, storage molecules, structural materials, and industrial raw materials, proteins as the most abundant biomolecules built from alpha-amino acids, the 20 standard amino acids with their side chains, symbols, and essential/non-essential classification, zwitter ion formation, amphoteric behaviour, and optical activity with D/L configurations, peptide bond formation and the progression from dipeptides through polypeptides to proteins, fibrous versus globular protein shapes, the four hierarchical levels of protein structure including alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet secondary structures, denaturation as the loss of native conformation and biological activity, enzymes as globular-protein biocatalysts with substrate specificity, naming conventions and the -ase suffix, mechanism of enzyme action through activation energy reduction, vitamins as essential dietary organic compounds, classification into fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble (B group, C) vitamins, and a comprehensive overview of vitamin sources and deficiency diseases, nucleic acids as polynucleotides responsible for heredity, DNA and RNA types, chemical composition yielding pentose sugars, phosphoric acid, and nitrogenous bases, structural difference between beta-D-ribose and beta-D-2-deoxyribose at C-2', classification of bases into purines (adenine, guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, uracil), structure of nucleic acids covering nucleosides, nucleotides, phosphodiester linkage, primary and secondary structure, Watson-Crick double helix with complementary base pairing, three types of RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA), biological functions of DNA in heredity and self-replication, role of RNA in protein synthesis, and DNA fingerprinting applications, hormones as intercellular chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands, their three chemical categories (steroids, polypeptides, amino acid derivatives) with examples, insulin and glucagon in blood glucose regulation, thyroxine as an iodinated tyrosine derivative with hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, iodised salt, steroid hormones from the adrenal cortex (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids), Addison's disease, and the gonadal sex hormones testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone