Class 12 Geography - India: People and Economy

India's population distribution patterns, density variations across states, growth trends from 1901 to 2011, regional variations in population growth, rural-urban composition, linguistic diversity across four language families, and the composition of population by age, sex, literacy, occupation, and religion

Types, patterns, and factors shaping rural settlements in India, urban settlements and their evolution, urbanisation trends from 1901 to 2011, and the functional classification of Indian towns

Land use categories in India, changes in land use patterns, agricultural land use, major crops including foodgrains, pulses, fibre crops, sugarcane, tea, and coffee, agricultural development from subsistence to modern farming, and the persistent problems facing Indian agriculture including monsoon dependence, low productivity, farmer indebtedness, fragmented holdings, and land degradation

India's water resource availability from precipitation, surface water and groundwater, the uneven distribution of river basin flows, state-wise groundwater utilisation patterns, lagoons and backwaters along the coast, agriculture's dominance in water utilisation, why irrigation is essential, the groundwater crisis from over-extraction, PMKSY objectives, emerging water stress from population growth and pollution, deterioration of water quality in major rivers, CPCB monitoring, legislative measures for pollution control, water conservation strategies including recycling and reuse, watershed management programmes like Haryali, Neeru-Meeru, Arvary Pani Sansad, and Atal Bhujal Yojana, rainwater harvesting methods including traditional Kund and Tanka structures, the National Water Policy 2012 framework, the Ralegan Siddhi community-led watershed success story, and the Jal Kranti Abhiyan for water security through Jal Grams and mass awareness

Types and classification of minerals in India, their geographical distribution across three major mineral belts, iron ore reserves and production, manganese and other metallic minerals, non-metallic minerals and their industrial uses, India's conventional energy resources (coal, petroleum, natural gas), non-conventional energy sources including nuclear, solar, wind, tidal, geothermal and bio-energy, and conservation of mineral resources through recycling, substitution and export regulation

How India adopted planning for economic development through sectoral and regional approaches, the concept of target area and target group planning to address regional imbalances, specific programmes like the Hill Area Development Programme and Drought Prone Area Programme, the case study of Bharmaur tribal development, the concept of sustainable development from Brundtland Report, and the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area as a case study in ecological sustainability

India's transport network covering road, rail, pipeline, waterway and air transport systems along with communication infrastructure, their historical development, current status, classification, major projects, and role in national integration and economic development

India's international trade covering trade volume growth, persistent trade deficit, shifting composition of exports and imports, the role of engineering goods and gems and jewellery, competition from China and East Asian economies, the historical shift from foodgrain to petroleum imports, direction of trade with major regional partners, measures to expand India's global trade share, Indian sea ports as gateways of international trade including colonial-era development, Partition impact, port classification, profiles of key western and eastern coast ports with their hinterlands, and the role of air transport and the UDAN scheme

Environmental pollution covering water, air, noise and land pollution, their sources and health impacts, the Namami Gange Programme, urban waste disposal and its management, rural-urban migration and the problem of slums, land degradation causes and wasteland classification, and the Jhabua watershed management case study with community-led restoration